Community Involvement & Community Tourism

An important component in the 'selling mechanism' is to how local communities might participate to add
economic value —a community value proposition— from products and services that they can offer directly to the visitor.
This essay is a 'toolbox' of ideas to contribute to this process. The need to employ an expert to guide the project along is a decision for each community.

Now, more than ever, local communities are challenged to better their own economic standing. At the same time, these communities have unprecedented opportunities to make this happen. Research reveals that local people want to be more involved in planning tourism that involves their community but may not possess the proper tools to make this possible. A further problem will be engaging regular people to become involved in creating their future.

Two things are clear: reliance on past performance may not provide clear answers and supporting local enterprises is at the forefront of recovery. Some even go further in emphasizing support for wider community goals and not only monetary benefits. Creativity and finding new ways will bring the best results.

Engagement of local interests brings investment and pride of ownership along with small scale employment and business opportunities. By doing business with other local enterprises, local economies may actually become more stable in the long run instead of relying on the fast return/boom-bust cycle that has been the pattern over the last few decades. One thing is for sure: reliance on outside investors hasn't worked and is not likely to work because there is not the same commitment to the local interests.

Local people also possess attributes such as local culture, food, folklore and knowledge that has great potential to engage visitors and to deliver experiences. This is what the modern visitor is seeking out: local experiences that will be remembered long after the stay.

Equality drives strong, empowered communities to contribute to tourism success whereas, in-equality drives weak and disenfranchised communities to detract from it.

In terms of establishing a local tourism centrepiece, or focal point, the first step is engage the community with a goal to create or identify what the community project will be based on. It must be based on something physically present or deliverable, a site, a service or a product. Without this, there really isn't a project. There can be more than one focal point or node. The project becomes a key part of how visitors interact with the community. As observed by Dr. Francesca Zanutto: "The only service that can not be relocated [in] a tourism destination is a PLACE!"

During this phase it is also important to identify stakeholders: individuals, groups or businesses, etc who will be involved in the project or may be impacted by it.

See this 'Example Experience Concept' - 'Bluefields Community led marine reserve experience' (pg 77) in the Community Based Tourism Handbook (CTO).

Is your community connected? If visitors can't get to your location, or are unwilling, what are the chances for success? The next step is to find a way for visitors to travel to your project, and maybe stay for a bit. Echoing the benefits for the community, again ultimately means these benefits will propogate to individuals within the community and to others who come in contact with this place and these people.

This is not a marketing manual, but, clearly how the project will be marketed is important. The project needs visitors to come in, spend some money and support the community. How will the project, and the community, be connected to travel sellers and tour operators?

All of this requires a considerable committment by the community, in money, time and resources. This is also a long term proposition, it will likely take years to get it going and to generate sales and interest, enough to turn a profit and provide financial benefits to the community. At the same time, there is no going back, mistakes and setbacks are going to be a part of the process and it is important to learn from and build on these to improve prospects in the future.

There are other ways to see community tourism. Project undertakings known as "Community Based Tourism Initiatives (CBTIs)" are an example (Simpson, 2007). This is a project, undertaken by entrepreneurs, either within the community, or from elsewhere, to develop a project with a community oriented approach. The main interest is to benefit the community by hiring locals and employ other means to return some financial benefit to the community. The difference from other types of tourism developments is that community involvement and support is accepted and encouraged. This may offer a means by which many of the issues about timing, financing, delays due to disagreements, and so on are not going to stand in the way of development. Even if the community decides to develop their own project, it may be worth while to look at alternatives, if only to better the understanding of what it takes to get a project off the ground.

Community Benefits <=> Citizen Benefits <=> Visitor Benefits

Sustainable tourism tends to be an abstract concept whereas community tourism has tangible properties. It is better to think about sustainable tourism as coming out of community tourism, rather than the other way 'round. The ability to sustain tourism comes out of the community's ability to come together to create and support a project. This is not meant to infer that community tourism is easy. Its benefits are not always obvious. It likely does not make enough money. It requires a lot of effort and may divide some communities. Many projects end as failures, many are marginal.

So —why do it?

• assert community ownership of resources in the interest, and for the benefit, of local stakeholders
• improve the community's ability to sustain itself
• make more efficient communities by reducing redundancy and overlap
• create a focal point for community involvement
• provide employment, even if it is subsidized
• capacity building, training people for possibly paid employment elsewhere
• re-inforce community's ability to deal with external forces
• to secure and protect community assets
• clarify and build on "rules of community asset management"
• network community to wider tourism industry
• development may lead to larger projects
• improve overall community infrastructure and build on linkages to other community assets
• involve, educate and engage the wider community in understanding value of tourism assets, tourism projects and tourism, in general
• provide increased enjoyment and usefulness for cultural assets within the community itself
• improve sustainable practices within community as well as by visitors
• create more cohesive communities
• reduce or remove barriers to social co-operation within the community
• overcome barriers to potential future projects
• understand better, what is a beneficial project and what is not and guidance for longer term development
• identify and reduce threats which impinge on local assets
• identify visitor characteristics and engage better with visitors
• dispel myths about timelines or timescales required to develop community assets
• individual residents who may not agree with all of the components can still accept the concept is in the interest of the greater good.

Importantly, community tourism may provide enough incentive for the best and the brightest in the community to stay and help build the community, at least for a time.

In other words, the "success" of a tourism project cannot be viewed solely as the success (or failure) of the project on its own. Some community projects cannot be assessed in financial terms alone. The impacts must be viewed within the context of the whole community and seen as contributing to other aspects of daily life. So, even when it fails there are still benefits that accrue to the wider community. Think of it as a stage in the metamorphosis of the project. Someone else, with a different way to envision the project may be able to turn it into an economically viable project or develop some part of it. The project must never be seen as an outright failure.

Are there examples of projects, or communities, elsewhere that echo some of these issues in your own community? The opportunity to learn from other project experience is valuable, however, it is un-realistic to predict the prospects for success or failure based on the results from another community. The different mix of people, social conditions, history, timing, support and the type of project will all influence relative chances for success. Each project and community must still be assessed independently.

It is beneficial to conceptualize a big project in terms of a set (or series) of smaller projects, as part of an ongoing process. How does each person see their own role in supplying the tourism product?

Create and identify potential collaborative partnerships -- both within the community as well as across all sectors of the tourism industry.

Transport <=> Hotels <=> Attractions <=> Services <=>TOs <=> Guides <=> NGOs

Because of logistical problems, issues of interactions with outsiders, fear of damage to local sites, or fear of "folklorisation", some communities may decide not to develop a project. It is important to garner the support of as large a contingent of residents as possible but some may not agree on a way forward. Will some people benefit more than others? What impact will there be on local youth? In cases where vocal opposition is adamant that a planned project is not beneficial to the larger community, the desired course of action may be to establish as much agreement about ways forward with caution towards the downside factors and respect for dissenting opinions.

Their concerns for community welfare are likely well-founded. To ignore them or downplay them may come back at some future time in a way that could cause serious harm to the project, but more importantly, to the community. These issues must be settled to the best possible compromise of concerns of all citizens.

What are the risks?

• Costs may be greater than profits
• The project or product may not be economically viable
• Damage to sites or reputation
• Split community
• Loss of habitat, environmental damage
• Damage to or overdepletion of food, energy and water supply
• Social issues from interaction with outsiders
• Infrastructure needs may be more than community can support

The studies showcase a wide variety of "Community Based Tourism Enterprises (CBTEs)" in each country or area. Very often, no two enterprises fit the same model or description, even though they appear, at least on the surface, to be quite similar. This highlights the need to be extremely flexible and adaptable and key to this would be the ability to customize services to fit the 'in-situ' enterprise presence.

Whether individuals are keen to take up tourism services and become actively involved in supplying to tourists is directly related to the successful planning and implementation. Success here will encourage and entice more citizens to participate contributing to long-term success and viability. All citizens will be involved, in some way, whether as a shop attendant, a passerby or service provider and so on. There is potential for interaction between visitors and any of these.

Grassroots is key

This must be a grassroots kind of participation. Although some initial effort is needed to get the project recognized as viable, this participation must be voluntary and not perceived as being thrust upon or forced. Citizens need to be actively engaged in order to impact the delivery of a product or service as they would want it to be.

This is critical to success. The 'tourism oriented service attitude' is the underlying principal that enables community tourism to flourish. It should be present even if there is no project, in order that residents are engaged in delivering the best experience possible. The objective is to create a positive feedback loop within the community. One that may open possibilities for future development.

Conversely, if local communities do not perceive the benefits from being tourism suppliers than the long-term implications are that tourism will not develop or be willingly accepted by local communities or individuals. This may generate a negative feedback loop, discouraging others from participating. Those residents who do wish to provide the service may end up being frustrated. Their product or service may not have sufficient support within the community to encourage it to fully develop.

This has the potential to block development of tourism on a wider scale. This will impact visitors who may potentially be left with negative impressions from their personal experience. This negative impression is what the destination risks being carried back to be told to friends, and so on -- or worse, to be posted up to social media sites where hundreds or thousands of viewers will read them.

Thirdly, the long-term success of tourism is based on long-term thinking. Many destinations are in the downward phases of the tourism life-cycle. A big part of this is caused specifically by the disenchanted perceptions and attitudes of residents. And what would one expect to be the result after several decades of tourism development that has side-lined, excluded and bypassed these people. This becomes even more problematic when governments bypass their own regulations in order to jump start development.

If tourism authorities - including governments as well as developers - are determined to achieve truly sustainable tourism than this must include the local people. Tourism renewal in many places will be contingent - and conditional - on genuine participation. It is not clear, or even evident, that tourism authorities are willing to take this step without some sort of push. Unfortunately, this may still not be enough to engage people in any meaningful way. So, it may be necessary to determine at least a threshold level of community involvement before tourism projects are allowed to proceed.

Furthermore, many of the best places are in this situation, so finding and developing alternate places is getting more difficult and expensive. However, engaging local people has a high potential to deliver economic, along with social and environmental, improvement. It may make sense to take a new look.

Many local peoples may not possess articulation or literacy skills to express their attitudes in a clear way but this does not mean that they don't have them or that they are unimportant. It does not make sense for leaders to be dismissive and paternalistic - to take a 'father know's best' attitude. This approach is just as likely to re-inforce resentment and perpetuate, possibly deepen any resistance. This is a waste of potential.

The key is to take a future-oriented approach. The past is what happened, it can't be changed. Learn from it and use this to influence the future. You know you can change your future and the future of others that you interact with on a daily basis. It is possible, indeed essential, to harness the people potential - to create positive outcomes and positive experiences for all concerned.

Thinking aloud...

These are not people who can afford to invest a lot of money and then to see their investment not deliver.

By now, probably a lot of communities have considered developing tourism projects but looking at how many have failed, provided they may be aware of them. It would not be surprising if that - by itself - were enough to deter any foray into this realm. However, like most endeavours, nothing ventured, nothing gained.

Not 'if we build it - they will come' but 'if they might come - we might build it': There is little advantage to building something when there are no visitors expected to show up; conversely, if visitors arrive in sufficient numbers, that is when it is time to consider building the project.

So! - Develop the service basics first:

• An individual or group conducts the "Opportunity Study" as per Intracen tourism guidelines (below) - Value Chain Analysis - SWOT
• Develop appropriate feedback tools to allow residents to comment and voice their issues, positive or negative
• Surveys, questionnaires, participatory action
• Website or blog
• Local media such as community newspapers
• Develop computer model to illustrate what outcome scenarios might be, or refer to other examples
• Don't rush a project, maintain proportionality between scale and potential return.

It is possible to think about a set of pre-conditions before embarking in an expensive investment

• what 'is' the target, or required, number of visitors?
• determine whether site or location is connected to transportation which offers adequate capability to bring the required numbers of visitors
• is this a seasonal product, does the demand season correspond to the ability of the community to provide service, are necessary workers available?
• determine eligibility in terms of whether the destination has the necessary components to become a tourist product, accommodations, foods, energy and water supply
• ascertain service mentality and willingness to supply labour to projects
• what is the local community willing, or capable, to support?

Are there any outsiders coming into region? (or close by) - If not, why not? or if there are - survey them.

If the above initial studies show positive signs, then:

• create a steering group to oversee the project composed of local leaders and entrepreneurs
• train people to do certain tasks such as guides
• develop related products such as hiking trails, tours, observation areas for wildlife
• develop products like souvenirs, sample foods, drinks to be sold locally or possibly exported
• test market to local residents or markets within easy reach
• cultural product export, like travelling show or act, possibly to nearby local markets or further afield
• promote knowledge about flora, fauna in the area
• survey in feeder markets to determine what interest there is in supplying a product
• develop a homestay category first and use experience from this to move to next step.

It may be necessary to 'go back to the drawing board' in instances where a project has been built but has not generated satisfactory results. The project becomes viable when it brings more benefit to people than the collateral harm it might also cause.

Questions

There are many questions that need to be answered in order to get at the truth about tourism in the context of communities, some questions might be:

Does your community have the "tourism service oriented attitude"?

• What role do individuals have to play in delivering tourism experiences?
• How can individuals make a positive contribution to local cultural exchange that may form part of the project?

Does tourism planning consider all stakeholders? Is anyone left out?

How to deal with serious resistance. Engaging people who object vehemently to understand why they would not support a tourism project.

What about other social and environmental implications?

Does tourism deliver the benefit that destinations - and communities - are yearning for?

• IF not - WHY not?
• How much of the tourist expenditure trickles into local businesses?
• Is tourism pushing the cost for products and services too high for local people?

Does the destination deliver value and live up to it's billing?

• How can tourists make a positive contribution to local cultures and people?
• How much of the visitor dollar spent is actually staying local?

Is the way a culture is shown fair to indigenous people?

• Are indigenous peoples being forced to give away their heritage to sell to tourists?
• Are travellers actually receiving authentic experiences?

Is the tourist paying the real cost to visit the destination?

What are the unexpected/hidden costs, if any? licenses? permits? fees?

• Are hidden costs being absorbed by the community?

Is the tour company/hotel/restaurant/service company paying a fair wage to the local workers?

• Are workers benefiting?
• Are workers being treated fairly?

Are travel suppliers "over-the-top" when promoting their product? Does the destination meet visitor expectations after they arrive?

• Are destinations "trying too hard" and sacrificing their soul to attract tourists at any cost?

Are local authorities relaxing rules to allow travel suppliers, such as resorts or cruise ships, to operate?

• Are resorts and tour companies paying a fair share of taxes to destinations?
• Are resorts and tour companies paying a fair share of infrastructure costs?

Are destinations shielding tourists from the true conditions at a destination?

Is the destination a fad, a one-hit wonder?

What happens when the destination no longer attracts? (The Tourism Area Life Cycle or TALC)

What is the role of media?

• In what ways is media engaged to promote and deliver a tourism product?
• What about when things go wrong, what is the role of media in setting it right?
• Should communities support media that does not support their community interests?

Articles used in this essay

More Community Tourism Articles

A critical look at community tourism by Kirsty Blackstock, 2005
Community development has an important role to play in local tourism communities, such as Port Douglas. A CBT that is informed by a community development ethos could provide an important tool for residents who wish to ensure that tourism enhances rather than destroys their communities. With the industry dominating more and more communities in the world, a critical and emancipatory approach to tourism has become essential.

A New Approach to Sustainable Tourism Development: Moving Beyond Environmental Protection by Frederico Neto, UN, March 2003
Abstract: Tourism is one of the largest and fastest growing industries in the world. It is an increasingly important source of income, employment and wealth in many countries. However, its rapid expansion has also had detrimental environmental (and socio-cultural) impact in many regions. In this DESA discussion paper, I examine the main economic benefits and environmental impact of tourism, and review the development of the international sustainable tourism agenda. While much of international tourism activity takes place within the developed world, this paper will focus on the (economic) development of the industry in developing countries. I conclude that new approaches to sustainable tourism development in these countries should not only seek to minimize local environmental impact, but also give greater priority to community participation and poverty reduction. I argue, in particular, that more emphasis should be given to a 'pro-poor tourism' approach at both national and international levels.

A New Kind of Caribbean Tourism by Alexander Britell, Caribbean Journal, Sept 26 2014

Article about Jem Winston who operates 3 Rivers Eco Lodge in Dominica, which also has a homestay component. Guests are connected to homestay operators, living with them, learning about their culture and interacting with their community.

An evaluation of community-based tourism development: How theory intersects with practice by Dr. Rhonda L. P. Koster, Prairie Perspectives, 2008

What this examination illustrates is that although existing theory does reflect actual practice, there are several aspects of ‘reality’ that the sanitized literature on community-based tourism planning do not adequately reflect.

An Integrative Approach to Tourism: Lessons from the Andes of Peru by Ross E. Mitchell and Paul F.J. Eagles, 2004

Abstract: This study compares the Andean communities of Taquile Island and Chiquian, Peru, which differ in their level of integration for their respective tourism sector. Integration was primarily defined by percentage of local people employed, type and degree of participation, decision-making power, and ownership in the local tourism sector. Principally social and economic aspects were measured and evaluated, recognising that considerable local support and participation in tourism decision making are linked to issues of ownership and control. It was found that higher levels of integration would lead to enhanced socioeconomic benefits for the community. A framework for community integration was developed that could help guide research, planning, development and evaluation of community-based tourism projects.

Barbados Tourism Master Plan 2014-2023 Final Report I Barbados Latest Tourism Policy Document (Revised May 28 2001) (slideshare)

This paper proposes that Barbados should be positioned as an upmarket, quality destination that focuses on the brand elements of "friendliness", "cleanliness" and the provision of a safe and secure environment and offering the highest possible value for money. (pg iii)

Document places a high level of importance on community participation.

5.4 Involvement of Local Communities
Increasingly, planners and policy makers are recognising the role that local communities must play in the planning, development and operation of tourism if the industry is to be successful. Furthermore, local communities are becoming more aware of their rights and are prepared to express their views in the media and through public demonstrations. Many international funding agencies now include the involvement/treatment of and impact on local communities as one of the conditions precedent to the award of funds for projects. Hence, social impact assessments are now a requirement for many tourism and other development projects.

5.4.1 Factors that Limit the Meaningful Involvement of Communities in the Tourism Industry:

• Lack of information and awareness
• Lack of know-how and training
• Lack of finance
• Lack of interest on the part of some existing establishments to build partnerships with local communities
• Lack of incentives to reward private enterprise that build or develop local capacity and create jobs through community linkages

5.4.2 Concerns of Local Communities

The concerns and anxieties of these previously neglected groups need to be understood and adequately addressed in building a successful tourism industry in Barbados.

Some of these concerns focus on the following issues:

• Tourism is a business where only the wealthy in the society benefit.
• The majority of our people have never been meaningfully exposed to the industry.
• There is much suspicion and mistrust regarding major players in the industry.
• Lack of knowledge and understanding of what tourism really is and how it works.
• Lack of training opportunities for local communities.
• Inability to access adequate financing to take advantage of entrepreneurial opportunities provided by the sector.
• Lack of involvement by most Barbadians in the planning, decision making, investment, development and promotion of the industry.
• Negative attitudes exist within the industry towards community tourism products which are often viewed with skepticism and regarded as inferior within the formal sector.
• Lack of market access – local communities lack access to the lucrative tourism markets.
• Barriers to entry caused by very large organisations and corporate structures which control the market. (pg 10)

9.8 Community Involvement
Government has identified sustainable tourism as the guiding principle for successful tourism development. The tourism industry is essentially a service-oriented sector and one which relies heavily on our human, natural and cultural resources. Communities should, therefore, be encouraged to be involved in all areas of tourism development and the visitor experience to ensure that the service which we provide to our visitors is of the highest quality, and our local resources are conserved and protected. (pg 26)

9.17 Safety and Security
The tourism industry is the major source of income for Barbados and it is imperative that any threat to the sustainability of the industry be firmly addressed and tackled. Crime, harassment, and other forms of anti-social behaviour, along with hazardous and unhealthy facilities are some of the major threats to the development of the industry. Such problems frustrate our efforts at maintaining Barbados’ image as a safe, clean and hospitable destination. The development of community awareness programmes coupled with the strengthening of the capability of our security forces, and the adherence to the highest standards of occupational safety and traffic management are, therefore, essential to our tourism development. (pg 28)

1.3 Foster a climate of empowerment in which each individual is seen as a manager of the tourism product.
1.9 Develop awareness programmes to sensitise Barbadians to the benefits to be derived from engaging in the provision of tourism ancillary products and services. (pg 31)

2.1 Implement initiatives designed to enhance the skills, knowledge and attitudes of Barbadians of all ages, particularly those involved in the tourism sector.
2.4 Continue to work with the Royal Barbados Police Force and other agencies in the reduction of crime and harassment nationally and in the tourism sector. Provide tourism related training for the staff of the Royal Barbados Police Force and other security agencies, and encourage special policing policies for tourist areas.
2.9 Develop a culture of enfranchisement and proprietorship by encouraging employees to invest in the tourist industry. (pg 32)

3.6 Consult/involve the community in all areas of the tourism development process.
3.7 Widen and deepen the involvement of social partners in the planning for and management and operation of the tourism sector. (pg 33)

6.9 Encourage developers to contribute to the social and physical development of local communities. (pg 36)

7.7 Showcase Barbados’ unique cultural heritage, including local products, in our marketing efforts. (pg 37)

10.8 COMMUNITY INVOLVEMENT
Specific Objective
To encourage and facilitate the involvement of communities in all stages of the tourismdevelopment process.
Strategy/Action - Guidelines
8.1 Develop and monitor action plans for deepening the involvement of ‘communities’ in tourism by inter alia ensuring community consultation in all tourism and tourism-related developments.
8.2 Develop mechanisms, in consultation with relevant agencies, to sensitise communities on the scope and impact of tourism and the opportunities in the sector.
8.3 Create a strategy in collaboration with other government agencies to ensure that communities are consulted throughout the project cycle of tourism related developments which may impact on them.
8.4 Identify appropriate sources of funding for financing community tourism efforts.
8.5 Arrange in collaboration with existing agencies, programmes to develop basic business skills and provide financing in order to facilitate growth of community-based tourism related business.
8.6 Determine the carrying capacity of communities and the effect and impact of tourism on communities through the conduct of social impact assessments.
8.7 Provide fiscal incentives to encourage the development of sustainable community tourism programmes which incorporate indigenous natural resources and cultural heritage. (pg 38)

17.3 Encourage meaningful and effective partnership among the security forces and social partners for the efficient management and control of crime, harassment and other undesirable behaviour. (pg 47)

11.4 Role of Communities

• Take advantage of opportunities to participate in the decision-making process.
• Exploit the potential of resources within their communities for purposes of small business development geared for the tourism industry.
• Participate in activities aimed at natural and cultural heritage conservation.
• Collaborate with Government and the private sector, where necessary, in the planning and execution of tourism-related projects within their communities.
• Participate in training and awareness programmes which would enhance their ability to play a positive role in tourism development. Monitor all tourism policies and plans to ensure that communities are not disenfranchised, and that the local resources and skills in the community are fully optimised. (pg 51)

A Social Viability Assessment of Cruise Tourism in Southern Belize, Seatone Consulting, 2011
The findings echo the sentiments of residents in many destinations. They feel that they do not have any say in the development of the tourism industry. They feel that the development has been agreed to without adequate consultation and that the government has not been acting in good faith. They also comment that they do not receive enough benefit after tourism has been developed. This is an example of what can happen when residents are not allowed to participate in tourism development.

"Across the board, citizens and residents of the south repudiated the proposed development concept of a “cruise tourist village” within the village of Placencia. The proposal, in the view of many, typified the exclusive and consolidated nature of the cruise industry—what many consider a problematic element of mass tourism models of development now seen in many parts of the world. Some showed interest in cultivating a market for small ships (e.g. <500 passengers) but emphasized the need to spread economic benefits, ensure local operational control and improve management of the sector in Belize City prior to considering geographic expansion or new port designations in the south. Finally, several meeting attendees expressed frustration at the limited amount of information provided by the private developer, and thus felt ill prepared to offer an informed evaluation or recommendations on the issue to government officials".

Can Tourism Transform?: Community-based Tourism Initiatives in India by Ananya Dasgupta, 2008 (PDF) (Original article taken down**)

In India, tourism is viewed and promoted as a ‘development paradigm’ and a major engine for growth. However, ‘development’ more often than not gets equated with economics, overlooking environmental, social, cultural and institutional dimensions. Especially in a rural context when the economics of tourism take priority, the impact is far greater. Rural India is faced with challenges of rising economic inequity, social discrimination and conflicts arising out of these, as well as differential and poor access to basic civic amenities & services. Therefore when we speak of tourism contributing to development we need to speak about it holistically – encompassing dimensions of ethics, equity, and justice, of access, local participation, empowerment, destination competitiveness and ultimately destination sustainability. A caveat to understanding tourism and development – rural tourism cannot be a one-stop solution for ensuring goals such as equity and empowerment. However this component is a valuable and critical one if one were to aim at people centred tourism.
** No copyright infringement intended. If the owner of this article wants it removed, contact info[at]wittreport.com.

Collective Strategies for Rural Tourism: The experience of networks in Spain by Ana Isabel Polo and Dolores Frías, 2010

Abstract: Rural tourism is an increasingly important activity for the European economy. Rural tourism development is complex, considering the wide variety of companies, agents and resources to be jointly managed, the objectives of each participating company, but also to broader objectives relating to the development and conservation of resources in the rural tourist destination. The aim of this paper is to provide a better understanding about the effects of networks as a strategy for improving the development of the rural tourism sector. An in-depth study of networked firms representing a rural tourism consolidated destination found that actions undertaken by networks contributes to the improvement for the rural tourism sector in three areas: improving the performance of enterprises, contributing to the economic and social improvement of rural tourist destinations and helping to create a rural tourist destination image. These findings have implications for both entrepreneurial behaviour and for public agents working in rural tourism.

Communities are key to sustainable tourism development, World Travel & Tourism Council, 2018
Two national tourism heads explain the importance of local communities in the travel and tourism ecosystem.

Community-Based Ecotourism Development: Identifying Partners in the Process by Keith W. Sproule, Wildlife Preservation Trust International, 2001
Abstract: The focus of this paper is on achieving conservation and development objectives through development of Community- Based Ecotourism (CBE) enterprises. The premise of the paper is that successful CBE initiatives are supported by the partnerships of communities with government, non-government and private sectors. To this end, this paper attempts to evaluate those partners most able to support various initiatives. Finally, the paper provides a few thoughts about CBE initiatives in the context of a national tourism market and what might be included in a National Community-Based Ecotourism Development Strategy.

Community-Based Tourism: A success? by Harold Goodwin & Rosa Santilli, ICRT Occasional Paper OC11, 2009
Our approach was to ask practitioners how they would identify a successful CBT initiative, what criteria they would use; and then to approach those initiatives which had been defined as successful by funders, conservationists and development workers in order to identify their main characteristics and, so far as possible, to determine what had been achieved. (pg 4)

There were 116 responses from the experts we asked to identify successful CBT projects and to tell us what criteria that had used. Social capital and empowerment was the most frequently cited criteria, mentioned by nearly 70% of respondents, only 40% of respondents mentioned anything which might be interpreted as referring to the importance of commercial viability, similar to the number mentioning conservation or environmental benefits. Given the prominence of collective benefits in the literature it was surprising that only 12% of respondents mentioned collective benefits as a reason for a CBT initiative being regarded as a success. (pg 5)

Participation is crucial to the formation of CBT initiatives as defined in the literature and whilst it is encouraging that communities participated in the majority of the projects surveyed, there was little to suggest that this was in fact the level of participation that allows for community management, without which the basic premise of CBT is undermined. (pg 6)

The claims made for community empowerment by CBT initiatives cannot be taken at face value, the gains can be important and significant for communities but they need to be demonstrated and subject to critical review. (pg 8)

Mitchell and Muckosy concluded from their review that “the most likely outcome for a CBT initiative is collapse after funding dries up.” They reported that the main causes of collapse were poor market access and poor governance. (pg 11)

[R]esearch by Rainforest Alliance suggests that 40% of CBT projects in developing countries do not involve communities in decision-making, 60% do involve some form of community engagement in decision making. (pg 11)

The large majority of community-based tourism initiatives are based on the development of community-owned and managed lodges or homestays. La Yunga in Bolivia is one such initiative where NGOs encouraged the community to develop a lodge (see Box 1). The lodge has attracted only 60 visitors per year; a bed occupancy of 2.7%. The community subsequently developed a walking trail which in 2005 attracted 1000 people paying $1.80 trail fee, grossing $1800 plus guide fees and other purchases from the community. The example demonstrates that the common focus on accommodation is misplaced – the community benefited far more when it provided an activity, their initiative required a much smaller investment than the investment in the lodge and provided significantly larger benefits. (pg 12)

The jury is still out on whether community based tourism can actually be profitable enough to create sustainable lifestyles, and so support conservation and local economic development. (pg 14)

Conclusions
There are a wide range of reasons given for identifying particular CBT initiatives as successful. The five main reasons given for initiatives being regarded as successful are Social Capital and Empowerment, Local Economic Development, Livelihoods, Conservation/Environment and Commercial Viability.
• Social Capital and Empowerment
This is the most frequently cited reason for a CBT initiative being identified as a success. ± 70% of respondents cited this as a reason and a quarter of respondents cited this first. This suggests that for a significant number of respondents the social impacts are of primary importance. SNV’s review of CBT projects in Botswana suggested that community empowerment can be considered the most important benefit of CBT. (pg 21)

Sample project in Barbados: de heart uh Barbados
Not considered a CBT, more like a brand. (pg 25)
Again it is important to recognise that some of the non-CBT initiatives make a significant contribution to the community collectively. For example Manda Wilderness reports that it has generated earnings which have been used to build “a central clinic, 7 schools, 60 kms of roads and a market place for the sale of agricultural produce. Set up legal association to protect communities’ land and civil rights, as well as to create a platform for the communities to participate in their own development. Boat service and air strip, health and HIV training, agricultural development. (pg 29)

CBT initiatives are generally small-scale and it is not possible for all members of larger communities to be involved and thus derive benefits; if communities are not able to participate fully, the benefits they derive may be limited; and communities are hierarchical and often elites garner the benefits of CBT development – it is very often the marginalised and poorest members of the community that remain on the periphery which could be down to class, gender, religion, culture or political affiliation. In these circumstances, CBT is not able to deliver on its basic premise of community participation and the equitable share of benefits to all community members. (pg 29-30)

There is a very wide range of different linkages between the projects and the local economy detailed in Table 15 – these linkages are extremely difficult to quantify and to do so was beyond the resources of this research project. It has not been possible to determine whether or not CBT initiatives contribute more than the others, but this is very unlikely as the major determinant of impact is scale. (See Table 15) (pg 30)

Nkwichi Lodge, is run by Manda Wilderness a private company, on a community owned reserve. The lodge demonstrates the significant local linkages which such developments are capable of generating. "The lodge locally sources fruit and vegetables (30%), fish, honey, mushrooms, hand made soaps, woven and carved handicrafts. Use of local choirs and dance groups - $19,000 per annum spent on local procurement. Manda Wilderness has helped set up 3 back packer lodges (rest houses) owned and run by community members. The Agricultural project has worked with over 700 farmers to set up small scale businesses. Assistance has been provided to establish over 10 local shops. Local arts and crafts are purchased from over 15 individuals. All building materials (thatching grass, bricks, timber etc) are purchased from local producers." The survey further reports: "Through knock on effects, all 20,000 people have benefited as there is more cash in the economy and less dependency on barter systems. For example, each village now has a general store / shop - before the arrival of the project, they did not". (pg 31)

Community Based Tourism and Local Culture by Andrea Giampiccolo and Janet Hayward Kalis, 2012
Altogether, CBT can be identified as a strategy for community development by means of self-reliance, empowerment, sustainability and the conservation and enhancement of culture for improved livelihoods within the community. (pg 175)

This paper suggests that CBT is not a panacea and cannot be seen as the only solution, but it should be included in the framework of strategies to promote rural development. As already noted, if CBT is properly managed it "can provide a range of development benefits to communities, especially in poor and disadvantaged areas". (pg 183)

Note: A parallel result of 'community tourism' may be to re-inforce the idea of 'community' to visitors and what it means to be a cohesive community, see pg 179.

Community-based Tourism in Northern Honduras: Opportunities and Barriers by Jessica Braun, Honours Thesis, 2008 (original NLA)
Abstract: This paper assesses the potential for community-based tourism in Rio Esteban, a small Garifuna community on the coast of Northern Honduras. The study begins with an assessment of potential tourism products that could be developed in the community of Rio Esteban and the neighboring communities. Along with this assessment, barriers to community-based tourism development were examined at the community level. A comparison of the barriers at the community level was done with two communities with differing levels of tourism development: Rio Esteban and Nueva Armenia. An examination into elements that contribute to successful community-based tourism was also done at the project level. This was done with a successful project in the community of Chachaguate and the community of Rio Esteban. From this project, an approach was developed to how further community-based tourism should progress in the community of Rio Esteban and the surrounding area. This approach will ensure that communitybased tourism will become viable and sustainable in the community and will assist in the economic development of the community.

Each community will face its own distinct set of barriers to CBT development. However, there are persistent barriers that arise in rural communities in developing countries; these include inadequate resources, inadequate infrastructure and poor market access. (pg 3)

Tourism that is going to be community-based or community managed needs to include the community from the onset of its development, beginning with the planning process. CBT initiatives that have employed an inclusive process from the onset of development have shown the greatest success (Cooper 2004). To ensure long-term success of the tourist destination, strong community support and participation is needed in the development process (Tosun 2000). The process should not only be participatory but transparent as well. Transparency will aid in mitigating any conflicts that may arise (Cooper 2004). A community that is engaged in the planning and development process will simultaneously build their capacity for the tourism industry, one of the main barriers initially identified (Mitchell and Reid 2001). (pg 5)

When tourists initially started coming to the island, the women of the island would compete with each other to see who would feed the tourists (pers. comm. Norales 2008). As a result, the women decided that working together would benefit everyone and developed the idea of a community-run restaurant. The community was involved 100 per cent in the planning process (pers. comm. Ives 2008). ...
NGO Involvement: The project began with funding from WWF (World Wildlife Fund), GAD, FFEM (Fundo Frances para el Medio Ambiente), and the Honduran Coral Reef Foundation (HCRF). The NGOs assisted in the development of the project, provided training along with providing funding (pers. comm. Ives 2008).
Marketing: The community of Chachaguate has the benefit of being located in a current tourist destination. The island is situated in the Cayos Cochinos, a group of two islands and 13 small keys that are a marine protected area (Brondo and Woods 2007). The islands are already marketed by Honduras Tips, the free travel guide available in all major cities in Honduras. The administrator of the restaurant has made it mandatory for all tours stopping at the island to eat at the restaurant. This can be done due to the size of island and a lack of elsewhere to eat in the Cayos Cochinos. (pg 22)

According to Rosy Moya, community leader from Rio Esteban, the project failed because the development process was not participatory (pers. comm. 2008). The NGO’s that funded the project did not allow the women’s group leeway for changing various aspects or for self-coordination. ...
NGO: OFRANEH did not commit fully to the cabana project and did not see it from start to finish (pers. comm. Ives 2008). The project also suffered from corruption, as all the funds allocated for the project did not reach the project (pers. comm. Ives 2008).
Marketing: Anthony Ives indicated that one of the major contributing factors to the cabana project failing was a lack of a business and marketing plan (pers. comm. Ives 2008). OFRANEH took on the ideology that ‘if you build it, they will come,’ (pers. comm. Ives 2008). But a lack of marketing resulted in insufficient tourists arriving to the cabanas and the business becoming unviable. (pg 23-24)

A case study done by Cooper (2004) found that the most effective marketing is done when a marketing brand is developed for a CBT project. A study by Woodland and Acott (2007) also found that local tourism branding is one approach to achieving sustainable tourism. Destination branding is defined as selecting a consistent mix of branding elements to identify and distinguish the destination through positive image building (Cai 2002). Branding elements come in the form of a name, term, logo, sign, design, symbol, slogan, package or a combination of these (Cai 2002). The brand of Rio Esteban will need to incorporate the thoughts and wishes of the community as to assure their tourism product reflects their culture and desires. (pg 30)

Community Benefit Tourism Initiatives - A conceptual oxymoron? Murray C. Simpson, 2007
Abstract: Tourism is simultaneously portrayed as a destroyer of culture, undermining social norms and economies, degrading social structures, stripping communities of individuality; and as a saviour of the poor and disadvantaged, providing opportunities and economic benefits, promoting social exchange and enhancing livelihoods. The aim of this paper is to introduce, define and examine the concept of Community Benefit Tourism Initiatives (CBTIs) and identify the range of characteristics that contribute to creating the best possible scenario for a successful, sustainable and responsible CBTI. The paper considers the roles of key stakeholders in CBTIs: government, the private sector, non-governmental organizations and communities. It seeks to identify the critical components of CBTI development, the potential problems associated with CBTIs and some of their possible solutions.

Community participation (which can mean a level of control, ownership or influence) in a tourism initiative appears to be closely linked to the derivation of livelihood and other benefits from the initiative to that same community. (pg1)

A community’s sense of ownership, feeling of responsibility and practical involvement in tourism has ... been heralded by researchers and practitioners as central to the sustainability of tourism and of great importance to planners, managers and operators. (pg 1)

The support and cooperation of the local community is frequently integral to those objectives and the path by which to achieve commercial and economic goals may often involve the preservation of essential natural assets, fundamental to the tourism product, and the maintenance of good relations with communities adjacent to or affected by the tourism initiative. (pg 9)

Appropriate tenure and/or ownership rights may assist in protecting the community against the behaviour and attitudes of short-term operators but it is important that sufficient benefits are channelled back to communities and that capacities are built within the community in order that they may deal better with the perennial issues associated with achieving success in the tourism sector. Understanding and appreciating factors such as product positioning, product quality requirements, operations and scheduling, tourism marketing, and the industry’s distribution networks is vital if communities are to sustain their involvement in a tourism initiative. (pg 9)

In essence a combination of conscience, pressure (legislative and lobbyist), necessity and a desire for capturing a maturing and growing market seems to have resulted in more of the private sector’s attention being focused on communities, their needs and the impacts of tourism on their livelihoods. (pg 9)

Tourism initiatives do possess the potential to bring benefits to communities. The same enterprises can also present problems within a community, threaten its stability and harmony, and trigger a range of other factors which menace the economic, environmental and socio-cultural sustainability of the community. (pg 10-11)

To ensure that people’s rights and responsibilities are not infringed upon and to allow those members of the community who wish to do so to continue to pursue their traditional links with land and resources traditional skills should be enhanced not eroded and a tourism initiative needs to complement rather than conflict with the livelihood strategies of individual residents. (pg 12)

Community sustainability in the year-round islands of Maine by Samuel A. McReynolds, 2014

While not written from a tourism perspective, this article does discuss some elements of seasonal issues related to tourism. Tourism is seen as a net benefit bringing revenue into the area but can impact infrastructure, seasonal employment along with wages, property values, product & service availability, and so on.

Abstract: This article examines community sustainability in the year-round islands of Maine, USA, with a critical focus on the impacts of seasonal residents on sustainability. The context of this research is to provide foundational material to determine and measure sustainability in island communities. Data examined includes population, housing, housing affordability, housing occupancy, property valuation, and taxable sales. Food availability is an important secondary consideration. The overall finding is that the island communities as they have historically existed are not likely to be sustainable but may become sustainable in a new form. The overall impact of seasonal residents on sustainability is inconclusive except that there is a clear negative impact in the area of housing. Directions for additional research are discussed.

How Public Participation in Belize Changed the Course of Cruising by Rich Wilson, Seatone Consultants, 2012

So what has come from the aforementioned public consultation process?
Following submission of the cruise report in March 2011, the government of Belize invited Seatone Consultants to share the findings and recommendations at another series of public meetings. During these meetings, government officials stated that they would respect the recommendations and forward the report to the Cabinet of Ministers. The desire by many to not have cruise tourism in the area was openly acknowledged. In addition, officials stressed that the public call for government policies that catalyze job opportunities—that “make rain” as it is said in Belize—had not fallen on deaf ears. The government promised to redouble its efforts to stimulate economic growth in a way that is consistent with sustainability principles and spreads economic benefits to the largest number of Belizeans possible.

If there is a lesson that can be drawn from this story, it is that the power for decision-making in a democratic society can still reside in the public sphere. In looking back, the Belize government should be credited for convening a genuine consultation process that, in the end, gave deference to the greater public interest. On the other side of the social spectrum, Placencia residents have since worked diligently on a local plan for sustained yet sustainable economic growth that creates widespread opportunities in the community. And while the private developers of the proposed cruise port were arguably scared off from this recent act of civic engagement, it is important to note that the issue of cruise industry growth has not gone away. Recent rumors suggest that the industrial port at Independence or offshore gems like the Sapodilla Cayes in the far south are now being considered for visitation by cruise ships. If these rumors show any signs of truth, stakeholders would do well to reference the report—a direct outgrowth of their own hopes, concerns and viewpoints on the issue—to evaluate whether or not cruise tourism on any scale is appropriate for the south.

In the end, the social viability assessment of cruise tourism in southern Belize revealed an earnest desire by multiple stakeholder groups to work closely with government on tourism planning and development issues. In pivoting away from cruise expansion in Placencia, the Belize Tourism Board and Ministry of Tourism have created an opportunity to build stakeholder trust and facilitate cooperation on a host of issues outlined in the Action Plan and National Sustainable Tourism Master Plan, and at a scale and level of civic engagement not previously seen in the region. On the other hand, private sector interests and the wider public may bring a proactive approach to future collaboration based on rational dialogue, openness, mutual respect and shared responsibility. The past development and implementation of whale shark guidelines and environmental performance standards for the marine recreation sector in the area demonstrates strong precedent for precisely this type of effective collaboration. This, in time, has led to economically beneficial outcomes while maintaining the health and resiliency of the region’s natural and cultural assets. It is in this context that the recommendations born of the cruise consultations may provide a pathway to sustainable economic prosperity that grows from the expertise and interests of all public and private sector players throughout southern Belize.

Challenges and Lessons in Financing Community Based Tourism Projects: A business perspective. Case Study by the Saint Lucia Heritage Tourism Programme by Sylvester Clauzel, CANARI, 2008

Key issues around security for loan, record keeping, marketing plan, approval period: – Collateral security inadequate – High debt servicing ratio – Low profit margins – Lack of statistical data on the CBT/heritage tourism sector – Lack of familiarity with the CBT/Heritage tourism sector – The seasonality of the tourism sector – Poor presentations of proposals and business plans – Lack of financial information – Lack of management structures – Marketing plans and strategies are not in place – Lack of planning – Lack of capital – Inexperience in managing business

Financing is often the make or break stage for a community project, many projects start out with external funding.

Community based tourism is a creative output by communities - projects will not proceed without: creative input, energy input, money input, resource input - cannot be thought of exclusively in terms of money, commercial interest, marketability - the idea being that financing for these projects should be matched by an equal amount of creativity by those supplying the money - institutions, governments, NGOs, individuals. In other words don't expect to dump in a whole bunch of money and then leave the project to either live or die, a further input of creativity and energy must follow the money to support the reason for doling it out in the first place.
What is the value to the financiers to claim support of a successful project?
People who are responsible for securing project need to look at financing agencies to figure out which agency will most likely provide the best chances for success
Barriers to success are already substantial, so concept is to remove, reduce as much as feasible
How is collateral valued?
- No way to measure or place a value on: community equity, sweat equity, intrinsic value, pride of ownership, creative assets
- What is relationship to other community assets?
Assist by providing loan guarantees, tax holidays, financial support ie: matching grants, reduce need to specify purpose of loan, logistical-technical-physical support, progressive performance milestone: credit | incentive | write-off, clear rules and guidelines written in easy to understand language.
Remove need to buy expensive equipment by allowing use of publicly available equipment, for example, computers at librairies
Make use of openly available software
Allow projects to qualify for educational pricing and discounts, at least until the project becomes profitable
If the project generates a product, incent distribution companies to distribute it - bundle it, etc
Key is to think about financiers as partners - they are part of the "community", but on a different level
Most projects are going to fail but don't let this stand as a barier, use the knowledge, experience to build on for future projects, review reasons for failure; SWOT: remove weaknesses, threats and build on strengths, opportunities
What is exchange value of support, if the government wasn't supporting a community project, or, it would need to support the community in other ways, so what money is available to be re-directed into the project?
Think about loan payback terms so that they are proportional to benefit period or term, maybe even think about weighting it so that earlier payment requirements are reduced and payments kick-in when project becomes profitable
In terms of "value chain", where does project fit, do other links need to be supported?
Is there such a thing as default insurance?
Microfinance Gateway | Latin America & the Caribbean
Microfinance in Latin America and the Caribbean (IADB)
MIX Market is a data hub where microfinance institutions (MFIs) and supporting organizations share institutional data to broaden transparency and market insight.
The Five C's of Lending: Cash Flow, Capital, Collateral, Conditions & Character (Community Futures British Columbia)

Community agency and sustainable tourism development: the case of La Fortuna, Costa Rica by David Matarrita-Cascantea, Mark Anthony Brennan and A.E. Luloff, 2010

The study shows how economic, social and environmentally sustainable practices were made possible through community agency, the construction of local relationships that increase the adaptive capacity of people within a common locality. Key factors found to enable community agency are strong intra- and extra-community interactions, open communication, participation, distributive justice and tolerance.

Community Approaches in Tourism Planning at Grass Root Level by Ahmad Puad Mat Som, Badaruddin Mohamed, Jamil Jusoh, Azizan Marzuki and Azizi Bahauddin, 2007 (Malaysia)

A community-based approach to tourism development is a prerequisite to sustainability as the concept of community involvement moves nearer to the centre of sustainability debate. Several advocates of participatory planning in tourism development have argued for an issue-oriented involvement of residents in decisions at an early stage in the decision process, before commitments are made. Thus, community participation in many ways has become an umbrella term for a supposedly new genre of development intervention and an ideology in tourism planning, akin to the participatory planning ideologies in urban and regional planning. By utilizing emic-study method, this paper attempts to appraise the prevailing planning practice and community mechanism at grass root levels in rural areas, particularly in tourism context in this country. In general, it can be contended the level of public participation in Malaysia sits in the first lower quarter of Arnstein’s ladder, and it is more in the form of informing rather than sharing powers to decide on policies and strategies.

Community-based Sustainable Aboriginal Tourism product development: A proposed model by George Ofori, Kapawe'no First Nation Narrows Cultural Resort and Ken Hammer, Malaspina University College, 2005

This paper explores the best approach to solicit community participation in developing a sustainable Aboriginal tourism product. Although brief, there are some very good pointers here.

Community-based Tourism by Maurizio Davolio, President of Earth | European Alliance of Responsible Tourism and Hospitality
Article presents "different definitions of community tourism with strong similarities and some differences which probably originate from diverse sensitivities and experiences gained in specific contexts. However, all things considered, we are talking about nuances, of underscoring rather than actual differences. ...
However, we should not believe that all experiences in community tourism are crowned with success. Unfortunately, in literature and in conferences numerous cases are described regarding failure caused by different reasons – the inadequate previous evaluation of the actual potential and objective conditions; local rivalries and jealousy; errors made by the NGOs, sometimes focused more on the formal achievement of the project rather than on the effective results to be attained; and the absence or weakness of a marketing and communications strategy. The outcome is that the tourists don't arrive, or if they arrive, they leave dissatisfied. The community suffers the frustration of being unsuccessful and the experience is abandoned, or other projects are requested, thus resulting in a practice or mentality of dependence on donors or NGOs, an “easy charity” situation. ...
However, there are also many successful experiences, developed in different countries, from the Caribbean to South America, from both French-speaking and English-speaking African countries, and from the developing Asian countries. ...
Substantially, the principles are always the same. The only important news, as we have seen, is the fact that many countries have legislated on the subject, recognising and supporting community tourism, seeing it as the best way to fight poverty, to contribute to economic development, to create employment and to increase respect for the natural resources and local cultures. Many international agencies, with the UN as their reference, such as the World Organization for Tourism, also specifically support community tourism, particularly through the ST-EP projects - Sustainable Tourism for Eliminating Poverty.
See pages 8 - 11 for a discussion of conditions necessary for community tourism to be undertaken.
Note: 2 versions of file, (filetype:pdf+site:earthresponsible.files.wordpress.com/) redirects to earth-net.eu but is searchable)

Community Based Tourism: Critical Success Factors by Veronica Garcia Lucchetti and Dr. Xavier Font, ICRT occasional paper OP 27, 2013 (archive.org)
Abstract: This work appraises a community based tourism initiative in Peru by GAP Adventures and its foundation Planeterra. We aim to determine whether it is leading to improvements in the lives of the participants and the community, by analysing the impact, the method of implementation and the commercial viability of the project. A deeper level of analysis aims to understand the critical success factors for this initiative: the links with the private sector, proximity to the tourism market, the creation of attractive and competitive products, the consideration of profitability, the community’s will to engage in tourism, and the implementation of a monitoring and evaluation process. We propose that analysing projects at this deeper level will help take more informed decisions about what community based tourism projects can be feasibly supported by donors with a chance of financial survival.

Community Based Tourism Enterprise in Latin America: Triple bottom line outcomes of 27 projects by Holly M. Jones, EplerWood International, 2008
Most CBTEs operate informally however there is still a keen sense of ownership and stewardship of protected areas.
Many of these enterprises lack promotional resources to link them to tourism or travel companies. As a consequence they are not able to capture as much tourism trade as they need to achieve better results.
Megan Epler-Wood: "[W]ith proper efforts to plan CBT projects like micro or small businesses and with efforts to link them to the local tourism industry, it was highly likely that more would succeed. ...
This research initiative sought to review the progress of CBTEs, from a triple bottom line perspective; looking at business competitiveness, conservation outcomes, and community benefits. The focus was on Latin America where a large number of these programs were launched in the last 10 years. ...
With over 89% of the CBTE enterprises in this study offering programs in protected areas, it is clear that the CBT model is strongly linked to the effort to conserve protected areas. ...
CBTEs are operating largely outside the traditional tourism economy and they are dependent, not on tour operators or tradeshows, but word of mouth, brochures and some on their own Internet sites. ...
CBTE respondents commented that the development of these enterprises has served as a catalyst for the creation of additional cultural, economic and conservation projects. Some local people feel that their cultures have been better preserved through the promotion of their history, indigenous languages, arts, sports, and ancestral knowledge, such as that of medicinal plants. ...
Economically, the CBTEs are providing additional work opportunities. The local supply chains are being strengthened as farmers and artisans sell their produce, meat, and handicrafts to the community enterprise and its guests. The existence of the CBTEs has also encouraged the creation of small, related businesses such as transport and guide services. ...
Enterprises also noted the benefits of the increased educational opportunities, in the forms of workshops, trainings and access to instructional materials. Other projects noted to have developed since the creation of the community enterprise include solid waste management, organic agriculture, and health and conservation programs."
REDTURS :: Latin America Community-based Tourism Network (archive.org, 2019)
REDTURS [was] a network of indigenous and rural communities, institutions and professional skills human resources devoted to supporting the sustainable development of tourism.

• Rural community based tourism: a portal to living cultures, ILO Article | 10 May 2004
  In the age of globalization, tourism is spreading beyond traditional tourist destinations. In Latin America, a number of small communities are taking up the challenge and seizing the opportunity to improve their conditions of life in ways that respect their heritage.

Community based Tourism: Finding the Equilibrium in the COMCEC* Context (Turkey) by: Asli D.A. Tasci, Kelly J. Semrad and Semih S. Yilmaz, 2013

The whole of section 1 says it all. This is the essence of community based tourism.

*The Standing Committee for Economic and Commercial Cooperation of the Organization of the Islamic Cooperation (COMCEC) is one of four standing committees of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) and serves as a multilateral economic and commercial cooperation forum in the Islamic world.

Community Participation in Tourism Development and the Value of Social Capital - the case of Bastimentos, Bocas del Toro, Panamá by Petra Claiborne, Master Degree Project, U Gothenborg, 2010

Abstract:
Tourism has become a major agent of transformation in every society and destination it has touched, and this change involves a price. Many communities, particularly in developing countries, are unaware of the costs and difficulties associated with this transformation of development. The purpose of this study was to explore the role and value of social capital in community tourism development. The study applies the concept of social capital to create an understanding of how a community constructs, perceives and participates in tourism development. Semi-structured interviews, focus groups and observations were conducted within a qualitative fieldwork. By comparing two different communities in Panamá, findings show how one village with strong social networks and cooperation for mutual benefits has initially developed community-based tourism. Whereas, in the other community local associations and engagement in collective efforts are either ... limited or absent. Thus, communities with high social capital, together with capable agents, present better conditions to induce development. More importantly, the willingness of the community to participate and its ability to develop practical options needs to be implemented.

Findings show significant level of opposition and negative reactions of suspicion, anxiety and fear locals have towards a proposed plan of tourism development at an early stage. Hence, there is a need and interest for studying feelings, hopes, expectations and concerns of residents that have little or no prior experience with, or knowledge about tourism. (pg 2)

With strong bonding social networks, meetings, groups or associations, the members of the community has a better chance of becoming more engaged and informed. By emphasising the need of viewing social capital as a resource, it enables a community to develop and reproduce new forms of social capital. These actions on the other hand lead to stronger and increased cognitive social capital of shared values, beliefs, trust, feelings and perceptions of support. The industry and local agencies ought to arrange informal meetings and promotional campaigns with the local people. A method needs to be found to direct the industry's contribution towards community goals, thereby guaranteeing the local's support and consequently participation. The community‟s concerns, issues and wishes needs to be considered and managed, and thus develop a better understanding of the local image. It is precisely here, within the context of desires and problems, that social capital and its potential for creating participation and satisfying needs becomes apparent as well as significant. (pg 46)

Community Tourism Basics by Clare A. Gunn, 2000: The Clare A. Gunn Collection of Professional Papers

Create a good fit: A community-based tourism planning model by David P. Pinel, 2003

Community-based tourism planning is about: 1) introducing more “strategic” and “future” thinking or visioning to tourism development; 2) relying on residents and community leaders as their own “experts” about community needs and desirable tourism influences; and 3) providing opportunities to clarify community strengths, challenges, obstacles, and opportunities for social, economic, and ecological well-being. CBTP encourages and facilitates reflection about how a “destination” is also a “home” (for residents, flora, and fauna). Tourists are more likely to appreciate and return if they feel a “good fit” between aspects of “destination” and “home” rather than experiencing tourism as a source of tension or negative impacts. (pg 280)

Context of Ecotourism and Planning, Ross K. Dowling and David A. Fennell, CABI, 2003
Theme of community runs through.

Developing Paradise: Tourism, the Local Community, and Nature in Las Terrenas, Dominican Republic by John Ripton, PhD Thesis, St. Bernard's School, 2014

Here is the very antithesis of community based tourism and the result in social as well as environmental degradation. Clearly in question are the longer term impacts on the social and environmental conditions of predatory development. Notably absent is any discussion of whether these businesses pay any taxes.

"While the forces of commercial development integrate Las Terrenas into the global economy, its municipal infrastructure simply has not kept pace" (Abstract) ...

Considerable foreign investment has propelled such rapid population growth and concentration that the city’s infrastructure cannot keep pace. Second, all levels of government have facilitated rapid development in the tourism industry with virtually no regulation dedicated to the public interest. This has led to corruption along with public suspicion and distrust. Third, the majority of local residents, especially the poor, have been excluded from any significant decision-making role in the development of Las Terrenas. Thus, the interests of the vast majority of residents seem to have been largely sacrificed to the private gain of local and foreign investors. ...

The examination undertaken here suggests how tourism development might be conceived in a manner that addresses some of its deleterious impact and provides for a healthier and more sustainable environment and economy: All sectors of the community must play a significant role in policy decision-making. This includes civic organizations and individuals, private investors, and all levels of government. Various levels of government must facilitate and regulate economic investment and the impact of such investment on the natural environment and the health of the local community. This should be accomplished with oversight from bodies comprising the various interested parties, including community organizations, to ensure a high level of transparency in the governmental processes. The government, along with local community organizations should also seek advice and support from international agencies and institutions that offer research and professional and other resources to achieve sustainable development. With such assistance, the various interested parties of the tourism economy, especially the local community and those who have financially invested in its development, can establish and pursue long-term strategies to protect the natural resources and the welfare of the local community and broader public. ...

In Las Terrenas, however, it seems that the misguided, short-sighted, and unsustainable way to economic development (through the unrestricted growth of its tourism industry without consideration for the protection of local communities or environments)—as was evident in 2009—continues at this time. This form of development mirrors the excesses and deleterious consequences of private economic advantage in the global marketplace, where capitalized foreign investors often exploit the dearth of labor protections and environmental regulations in developing countries. In turn, such asymmetrical power relationships between global centers of finance and technology on the one hand and relatively poor regions throughout the world on the other reflect the broader history of colonialism and imperialism". (pg 49-50)

Expression of Interest: Diversification of Community Based Tourism Products and Services (Belize)
"Scope of Work:
The Ministry of Tourism and Culture, the Belize Tourism Board and the National Institute of Culture and History now intends to apply a part of the proceeds of the project funds to address Result 3 of the Project “Diversification of Community Based Tourism Products and Services”. This action will fund activities for capacity development and training for local artisans from communities adjacent to the nine archaeological sites listed above".

Influence analysis of community resident support for sustainable tourism development by Tsung Hung Lee, 2012
Abstract: This study aims to assess the support of community residents for sustainable tourism development using the latent variables of community attachment, community involvement, perceived benefits, perceived costs, and support for sustainable tourism development and elemental data of the residents of the Cigu wetland, which is located in southwest Taiwan. The analytical results suggest that community attachment and community involvement are critical factors that affect the level of support for sustainable tourism development. The benefits perceived by host residents affect the relationship between community attachment and support for sustainable tourism development and between community involvement and support for sustainable tourism development. Several managerial implications of this study are introduced, and recommendations for future research are presented.

The development of sustainable tourism is difficult without the support and participation of the community residents. Thus, the support of residents is a critical factor for ongoing community development.

Involving Stakeholders in Tourism Planning by Gary Meadows
"Tourism planners who maintain open and transparent lines of communication, with as broad a range of stakeholders as possible, stand to gain from local advice and to benefit from local acceptance, leading to more effective and sustainable tourism development."

Jamaica Community Tourism Green Paper, 2014
The Government of Jamaica recognizes the opportunity that this international market presents for providing meaningful involvement by communities in the tourism sector. The country’s diverse and interesting communities are endowed with rich history, culture and beautiful natural settings, and offer real opportunities to tap into the experiential tourism market worldwide. ...
The potential benefits for communities, and for the nation as a whole, from a vibrant community tourism sector are many. It is not just tourism opportunities that are the focus, but also the opportunities to advance national policies such as employment and business creation in communities, poverty reduction, gender empowerment and equality, as well as natural, cultural and heritage development and protection. Therefore the community tourism policy and strategy, in addition to fostering the development of a new tourism segment, is designed to advance national economic and social policies, and capture these benefits during the course of the policy’s implementation. (pg 1)
Community-based tourism is an alternative tourism product that has been and is being developed in Jamaica and to some extent, in the Caribbean region, to meet the varying needs of the local and overseas vacationer seeking a “natural” experience.....Community tourism is not a brand of tourism, but rather a type of ownership and management arrangement. One set of alternative tourism products focuses on Jamaica’s history, culture and nature-based attractions in rural communities outside the main resort areas. Community based tourism is one or a combination of tourism products offered at a community level to domestic or international visitors. In the Jamaican context, community-based tourism usually refers to visitor interaction with local people in rural areas. (pg 4)
Lead consultant: Judy Karwacki
[ Certainly, this creates many opportunities for communities. Unfortunately, there does not seem to be much feedback from the community level: willingness to accept tourism, what they want, what they have agreed to contribute, what their objections or issues might be, and so on. ]
Principles of Community Tourism (@ archive.org, 2019) |  Finding the Best Way to Involve the Community: U Jamaica: Institute for Hotels and Tourism (@ archive.org, 2019)

Key Factors for Successful Community-Corporate Partnerships: Results of a Comparative Analysis among Latin American Cases by Daphne Hewitt and Monica Castro Delgadillo, RainRorest Alliance, May 2009

Local Perception of Tourism Development: A Conceptual Framework for the Sustainable Cultural Tourism by Sharareh Abbasi Dorcheh & Badaruddin Mohamed, 2013
Tourism scholars believe that local perception has been an important subject of research involving tourism industry, despite the fact that there is a great deal of articles and studies on local perception of tourism development. The question is how we can balance preserving the tradition and making the necessary adjustment to provide the needs of the place as a tourist destination without exploiting (use unfairly) the local community and distracting their life. This paper aims to review existing literature on local perception of tourism development and its process. It also discusses influential theories and explains the social exchange theory as aneffective framework for the sustainable cultural tourism. ...
In sum, from a tourism standpoint social exchange means that if perception of local community is base[d] on benefit from an exchange they evaluate it positively and therefore they help to promote and develop tourism; conversely if their perception is based on costs, their evaluation is negative. Accordingly, residents who have personal benefit or dependency on the industry tend to have more positive perception of impacts.

Neighborhood Sustainable Community Indicators: How To Create Neighborhood Sustainability Indicators in Your Neighborhood; written by Ken Meter, Crossroads Resource Center
Produced for the Urban Ecology Coalition (Minneapolis) by Crossroads Resource Center, February, 1999
This Guidebook is a report ... that offers practical tools to neighborhood organizations or research professionals who may wish to define sustainability indicators in ... urban or rural locales.

Prospects for the Establishment of a Community-Based Tourism Network in Timor-Leste by Denis Tolkach, Brian King, and Michael Pearlman, 2012 (Pop: 1.2M)
This approach places the emphasis on networking between stakeholders. "[I]t is widely believed that Timor-Leste residents consider tourism as an industry offering potential community benefits. A proactive approach advances the prospect of empowering communities, rather than relying on aid agencies and foreign investors, to determine the future of the country. ... Since CBT combines elements of both community development and business, the respective roles of cooperation and competition should be investigated."

**** Putting Community First Tourism for Development in Doi Village Central Vietnam, Masters Thesis by Quy Hanh Nguyen 2007
Operating a tourism enterprise to benefit people, and not only businesses, this thesis highlights the competing values within a community and how this can undermine a successful project.

• Community-based Tourism in Vietnam, Phuong News, 2018
  * This article is featured on Asia Life Magazine (March 7, 2018). Here under is the full version of the article.
  Danang-based Evergreen Labs is a social enterprise that focuses on the triple bottom line: social; environmental; and financial returns.
  "Community-based tourism is a subcategory of responsible tourism, in which local residents from marginalised communities generate income through homestays, food, and other services. Sadly, current community-based tourism practices in Vietnam do not greatly benefit local communities and for various reasons often fail.
  Evergreen Labs and the International Labor Organisation are now researching why community-based tourism has not been successful in Vietnam, with a view to finding some solutions to transform the segment."

**** The Role of Local Communities in Tourism Development: Grassroots Perspectives from Tanzania by Michael Muganda, Agnes Sirima and Peter Marwa Ezra, 2013
The findings revealed that local communities want to be involved when tourism policies are being made to enable policymakers to prepare a policy that meets stakeholders’ needs and addresses their concerns. They also want to be part of tourism development decisions to ensure their needs are incorporated. Furthermore, local communities want to have a voice in development issues (not necessarily tourism development) to enable them to protect community interests, and increase transparency and accountability, and wipe out embezzlements and abuse of offices, which are rampant acts amongst decision-makers. Similar to previous studies, they rejected the statement ‘local people should not participate by any means’ in tourism development. It is clear from the findings that people are against the prevailing top-down approach in decision making when it comes to tourism development in their areas. It also depicts the nature of the central government which controls all the forms of decision making when it comes to development and policy formulation. The study emphasizes on small scale methods in analysing and assessing the role of local communities views of participation from the communities themselves rather than what has been normally imposed on them.

Some Benefits and Threats of tourism for local communities: Handout: Day 5 H2 Benefits Threats (NOAA Sanctuaries)
A brief on the potential benefits as well as threats of tourism along with some caveats for communities who are close to tourism developments.

• filetype:pdf site:sanctuaries.noaa.gov

Sustainable Tourism in the Context of Poverty Alleviation and Social Business by Kristina Koenig, 2010 ($$)
This study introduces a concept of indigenous peoples being given land-tenure as a component their delivery of tourism products. Also, the concept of fair trade as it might apply to tourism.

Pro-poor tourism (though a nomenclature change might be in order that implies that PPT is anti-poverty and intended to lift the poor out of their deprived states), hence explicitly aims to integrate the poor into the sustainable tourism framework while not discarding environmental protection (Neto, 2003). (pg 8) ...

Such an approach benefits both the community in question, as well as indigenous development overall by virtue of turning cultural control back over to those directly concerned. concerned. Partnerships for collaboration and co-management (on an egalitarian basis) through NGOs or local associations that share in decision-making while establishing the crucial linkages and allowing learning and knowledge transfer could be a starting point for successful indigenous entrepreneurship in the tourism sector that centres on the community’s needs and their sustainable satisfaction in a setting that they themselves control and are responsible for. After decades of imposed economic ‘support’ according to majority (usually Western) ideals, oblivious to the influences of tradition and culture, indigenous social entrepreneurship finally reverts the discourse about indigenous development back to the minority populations for them to set the direction and establish the institutions for a mode of economic development suited both to their needs and traditions as well as the global economic framework. ...

Partnerships between the private sector, individual entrepreneurs, government, NGOs, and the local community have to be based on equality and clear accountability, and be explicit in their goals and actions while raising awareness in source markets of the local sustainability commitment and possibility for direct contribution. Allthewhile, conflicting stakeholder interests will have to be managed and coordinated – a formidable challenge for a local entrepreneur alone, who the government should at least guarantee land tenure to. Training and assistance should be provided (instead of financial subsidies), also entailing realistic expectations. Grassroots organisations based around social capital can contribute to skills development and hence human capital formation, thereby ensuring sustainable reinvestment of any profits in a way that prevents resource overuse. Linkages not only into the broader tourism system but into the entire surrounding economy support this approach. Access to information further cements empowerment, from political to psychological, of the community, while resulting increased participation in decision-making finetunes approaches to local needs and circumstances.

The Case for Community Led Tourism Development: Engaging & supporting entrepreneurial communities by Peter Robinson, 2008
Abstract: This paper critically assesses a case study approach to community led tourism development based upon reflective observational research carried out by the author between 2004 - 2006. The paper establishes the ad hoc nature of stakeholder and volunteer led development projects and identifies a lack of available resources in either academic or practical fields to support individuals and groups involved in these projects. Often these are good examples of community entrepreneurship or are a reaction to the often missed opportunity to encourage tourist spend. Projects discussed in the paper include interpretation, product development and community enterprise initiatives.

The Ecotourism Industry in the Caribbean: A Value Chain Analysis by Shellyanne Wilson, Indera Sagewan-Alli and Agustina Calatayud, IADB, 2014
The Ecotourism Industry in the Caribbean is a value chain study of the "ecotourism industry, and it was studied in the context of four countries: The Bahamas, St. Kitts and Nevis, Trinidad and Tobago, and Guyana. The ecotourism value chain was analyzed. Challenges to the development of the ecotourism industry were identified in the selected countries, and a roadmap was proposed." (Abstract)

The Ethical and Local Dimension of Sustainable Development in Relation to Smal and Medium-Sized Firms Participating in Tourism-Relevant Projects by Giovanna Bertella, 2014
The author argues that personal values such as 'sense of place', 'pride of place' and ethical standards are at east as important as personal profit in acheiving the successful implementation of local tourism projects.

The myth of empowering the poor through tourism – Time to fess up? by Irmgard Bauer, 2014 (Restricted to staff only)
Abstract: Tourism in developing countries has been heralded as an appropriate strategy to develop poor destination communities. This is in contrast to its often criticized negative impacts on resource poor areas of the world, including a lack of promised benefits. If people’s well-being and health have not improved appreciably after being developed, empowered and allowed to participate in their improvement, the question must be asked: why not? This article examines actuality and practicality of community development, empowerment and participation related to health and to tourism, the core concepts of interest. Regardless of the rhetoric, local people are still excluded from making decisions about their own well-being when it comes to tourism projects at their doorsteps. More articles by Irmgard Bauer.

The role of geotourism in supporting regeneration in disadvantaged communities in rural Ireland by P. J. O'Connor, 2008

Landscapes, scenery and rocks can provide a non-contentious focus for communities of different cultural and social backgrounds to work towards a common goal and by so doing to achieve a common purpose (e.g economic regeneration). (pg 2)

Our experience in Ireland has shown that landscape tourism or geotourism has the capacity to assist in the regeneration of economically deprived rural areas provided those areas possess significant geological heritage assets to begin with. (pg 8)

The Success Factors of Community Based Tourism in Thailand by Suthamma Nitikasetsoontorn, Thesis, 2014
Six factors were found to be statistically significant for the success of Sam Chuk and Klong Suan communities. These factors include participation in decision-making processes, local ownership, collective responsibility, leadership and management, achieving authenticity, and achieving distinction. In contrast, neither local innovation nor sharing of benefits enhances the community-based tourism success of the two communities. (Abstract, pg iv)

The Why and How of Community-Led Tourism Development by Claire Parfitt, CABI, 2009
This community entrepreneurship, which can make a real difference to the local economy, social cohesion and community pride, is a valuable commodity that the industry at large needs to nurture, support and grow.
Personal experience and consideration of the projects discussed here prove it is entirely possible for a community to come up with ideas, work with other stakeholders and end up with a positive tourism product that really does improve the quality of life for the community.
For any community participation to be effective, Shaw and Williams (2004: 182) highlight it is essential to integrate "local community needs and ways of life with tourism developments to avoid the problems and conflicts associated with erosion of local cultures". These ideals of community tourism are increasingly part of the state and NGO agenda's billed under "community tourism" or "sustainable tourism"". Having established the issues and outlined some potential resolutions, it is worth talking to local communities and actively engaging with them. The end result will be progressive, exciting and informative and may well result in some exciting project developments!

Toolkit on Poverty Reduction through Tourism in Rural Areas, ILO, 2011
A toolkit on poverty reduction through tourism has been produced. It aims at assisting developing and least developed countries to create a sustainable tourism industry and businesses based on decent employment. It is oriented towards SMEs and local communities in rural areas and includes case studies, training sessions and best practices. The toolkit illustrates the links between the ILO Decent Work Agenda, poverty reduction and the Millennium Development Goals.
"The importance of tourism for job creation and poverty reduction in rural areas of developing and least developed countries (LDCs) should not be underestimated. Tourism is increasingly recognized as a major source of economic growth, especially in poor countries. Its value chain and its significant connections to other sectors such as agriculture, construction, utilities and transport can contribute to poverty reduction. With regard to the supply chain in the sector, one job in the core tourism industry indirectly generates 1.5 additional jobs in the related economy. (foreword, pg i)
Poverty reduction strategies and plans
Policies, regulations and clear strategies are the basis for sustainable tourism development, largescale poverty reduction, the protection of natural resources and ways of life, and the promotion of economic development. In addition, they help to maintain social cohesion and the identities of local/rural communities. Governments play a major role in establishing development strategies, programmes, policies and statutory conditions related to safety, security, and sanitation, working conditions, infrastructure, education and training.
These policy frameworks are the basis to: - evaluate and monitor the environmental impact of major tourism developments;
- encourage industry supply chains to source locally and reduce reliance on imported items;
- promote local ownership by facilitating access to finances through credit and loan facilities for the poor, guaranteeing fair economic returns on the resources the communities are managing with a special attention to providing access for youth and women;
- support formal local/rural employment through the development of job outreach programmes that help educate and inform local/rural populations about job prospects in the tourism industry and related sectors, as well as about the consequences and risks of informality;
- strengthen collaboration and communication between the tourism industry and local/rural communities to facilitate the provision of food, goods, services or infrastructure by communities and to help them better understand the needs of the industry; and
- address current work deficits, particularly in poor working conditions at the workplace and the elimination of child labour.

Moving on from community-based tourism towards tourism-led poverty reduction In a review of 218 Community-Based Tourism Enterprises (CBTEs) operating in 12 southern African countries, Spenceley (2008) identified severe business capacity constraints. Limitations reported by CBTEs included accessibility (among 91 per cent of enterprises), market access (72 per cent), advertising (70 per cent) and communications (57 per cent) – despite more than half of the CBTEs receiving some form of external support from a third party compounded by a lack of access for women. Also in southern Africa Dixey (2008) found that only 9 of 25 CBTEs in Zambia evaluated had sufficient information on their income to compare their level of donor investment, visitor numbers, gross revenue and net income.
Key determinants of success were linkages to tourism companies, proximity to main tourism routes, competitive advantage, financial management, visitor handling and community motivation. In looking for reasons why these problems occur, Häusler (2008) found that in CBTE funding proposals in South America and Asia, donor agencies frequently considered participation, gender, empowerment and capacity building in their criteria. However, proposals have not been required to address business plans, administration, marketing strategies, product development, target groups, cooperation with private sector or communication channels. (Ch 1, pg 12)

Effects of tourism on local/rural development. (Ch 1, pg 15)

If a destination does not flourish how can pro-poor tourism thrive?”6 (National) destination marketing and product marketing at local/community level are not unrelated processes. Destination marketing creates the basic conditions that enable effective marketing of specific tourism products and services, in particular those linked to poverty-reduction strategies. At the same time, the marketing of a destination is based on the concrete experiences, services and options that are part of a global idea and branding of a “destination”. (Ch 3, pg 6)

The action strategies for the development and management of tourist destinations should consider the needs and interests of all stakeholders in the tourism system: local/ rural community, entrepreneurs, investors, governments, tourists and other stakeholders. (Ch 3, pg 8)

2.3. Categories of tourism products (examples) (Ch 3, pg 11)
An example of different niches within tourism product categories

Principles of Sustainable CommunityTourism
Social solidarity Promotes effective cooperation among members of the community and between communities, within a framework of equitable distribution of opportunities and benefits generated by tourism. Environmentally responsible Promotes awareness and respectful forms of sustainable management of natural resources and biodiversity, linking the rights to land and ancestral territories. Economically viable Incorporates objectives and instruments of efficient management and evaluation of resources mobilized, seeking benefits that will adequately reward work and investment. Culturally enriching Enables successful experiences and fosters quality meetings for both visitors and host communities, respecting cultural expressions of identity. (Ch5, pg 10)

Tourism: A Community Approach by Peter E Murphy (Google Books)
Originally published in 1985, Murphy outlines a set of principles to guide community based tourism development.

Tourism as a Positive Force for Local Communities, TrainingAid, February 19, 2022
We’ve asked industry trailblazers and change makers to share their own experiences, highlighting concrete examples of how tourism can be a positive force for local communities. These examples and stories serve as important reminders of the potential that tourism has to transform communities for better, and of our collective responsibility to use that power wisely. TrainingAid’s services and trainings help tourism organizations and industry professionals excellerate in their skills development.

Tourism Insights (archive.org)
Tourism Insights [was] published by VisitBritain in association with Tourism Together.

• Community-Led Tourism Development by Peter Robinson, Mar 2008 (@ archive.org, 2013)
• Tourism and the Host Community, Reading List, TourismInsights

Towards a Democratic Process for planning Community Tourism Development: A participant action approach by E. Wanda George, Heather Mair, Don Reid, and James Taylor, University of Guelph, 2002
Tourism affects most residents in tourism dominated communities, either directly or indirectly, business and non-business owners alike. Therefore, community tourism development should involve the entire community in the planning process (Reid, Mair, & Taylor, 2000). When this does not occur, problems and resentments often arise within the community. Tourism, like no other industry, relies on the goodwill and co-operation of the local people because they are part of the product (Murphy, 1985). Murphy further suggested that when plans and current development for tourism do not fit well with local aspirations and capacities, resistance and hostility can raise the cost of business or destroy tourism potential altogether, to say nothing of what that turmoil does to the soul of the community generally.
Discussion
Five main themes stemmed from this research: (1) learning from each other, (2) developing a community-first perspective, (3) selecting priorities together, (4) moving forward as a group and (5) repeating the process with a wider range of voices than usual. Central to connecting these themes was the idea that a community planned tourism product itself is stronger and better than one developed solely through the efforts of the business sector. In this approach, more members of the community buy into the process as they begin to understand how they can use tourism as a mechanism for generating economic growth while building the kind of community that is not only a good place to visit, but also to live in.
Conclusions
This approach to planning tourism development empowers a community to chart its own course for the future. It is designed to be a democratic process where tourism development planning is done based on community needs and values. All residents have the opportunity to participate and have a voice in the process. There are definite challenges that are inherent in this approach. It is difficult to get total community participation. Secondly, participants will have different agendas and individual goals. Third, tourism traditionally has been a focus of economic development and has excluded many social, cultural and environmental impacts; and finally, tourism planning has focused on the needs of the market and not on the needs and values of a community. Implementing the approach outlined here may help mitigate or minimize potential tensions and negative impacts often associated with tourism.

Trust in Tourism Locations: The role of Inhabitants and Institutions by Marinao, Enrique; Chasco, Coro; Torres, Eduardo, 2012
Abstract: The extent to which a tourist trusts a holiday destination has become an important factor when it comes to thinking about where to travel to. However, no previous studies measuring trust in a tourist destination have been found. We are proposing a multidimensional model to measure trust in a tourist destination, which proves the fundamental roles played by honesty, benevolence, and competence by both local inhabitants and institutions in developing trust. On the other hand, the image perceived works as a background factor, influenced by the familiarity and reputation of the place. The results of this study provide information for the different stakeholders from the destination on the factors influencing trust.

From the point of view of decision making, this study provides the different interest groups involved in the destination with information about the factors affecting the building of trust, in order to establish long-term relations with tourists. To get the tourists to increase their levels of trust in a particular place, the local and regional government and institutions associated with tourism development plans should incorporate a strategy to increase tourists’ trust into the local tourism development strategies. This plan should focus on three main actors: public institutions, private institutions, and local inhabitants. The objective is for all actors to be perceived as honest, benevolent, and competent. (pg 38)
Found at: Non-Profit Academic Project (redalyc.org)

What is Community-Based Tourism?: Community Empowerment Network
We Help Communities Help Themselves
Community Empowerment Network is an organization dedicated to breaking the cycle of poverty and dependency of many poor communities by helping them acquire and apply the basic skills, habits and mindsets necessary to be self-reliant in the modern economy.

Why Community-Based Tourism and Rural Tourism in Developing and Developed Nations are Treated Differently? A Review
Authors: Seweryn Zielinski, Yoonjeong Jeong, Seong-il Kim and Celene B. Milanés

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